Relevant Thesis-Based Degree Programs
Affiliations to Research Centres, Institutes & Clusters
Graduate Student Supervision
Doctoral Student Supervision
Dissertations completed in 2010 or later are listed below. Please note that there is a 6-12 month delay to add the latest dissertations.
Audiovisual cues and immersion across gambling and basketball: cognitive, behavioural, and physiological perspectives (2026)
Immersion is a psychological state of focused attention, diminished self-awareness, and altered time perception. It is central to understanding engagement in gambling and sport. This dissertation examines how audiovisual cues shape immersion and behaviour across simulated slot machine gambling (Chapters 3–5) and basketball free-throw performance (Chapter 6). Four experimental studies evaluated effects of cue intensity, outcome type (wins, losses, losses-disguised-as-wins; LDWs), and individual differences (gender, psychological distress, ADHD traits) on immersion, gaze behaviour, and task performance.Findings from Chapter 3 show that moderate (Intermediate), rather than high-intensity (Plus), cues produced the highest immersion, particularly among women, challenging assumptions of a linear cue–immersion relationship. Results in Chapter 4 demonstrates that Spin Initiation Latencies (SILs) were shortest in the Plus cue condition and were further influenced by gender and depressive symptoms. This chapter also replicated the post-reinforcement pause (PRP) effect: SILs were longer following wins compared to LDWs and losses, although unrelated to immersion. Results in Chapter 5 found no preregistered links between immersion and gaze patterns; however, exploratory analyses showed that moderately immersed participants allocated less attention to financial information (credit and win windows) and more to the spinning reels, a pattern more pronounced among men. Chapter 6 revealed no cue-related differences in free-throw performance or immersion, though distress, ADHD symptoms, and physical self-concept correlated with mood and motivation.Together, these findings support the revised Two-Filter Model of Immersion, which posits that environmental cues are filtered through individual cognitive-affective traits to shape immersive experiences. Across both gambling and basketball, immersion emerged from interactions between audiovisual cues and person-level characteristics, such as gender and psychological distress. These insights may inform future research on the structural design of gambling products, digital game features, and risk mitigation strategies for immersive engagement in digital environments.
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Modelling product risk and gambling harms in online gambling (2025)
The internet has increased the accessibility of gambling, with a corresponding increase in the risk of gambling problems. To date, little research has examined the risk profile of different forms of online gambling, or considered financial data to predict gambling risk. This dissertation describes a series of secondary analyses looking at the ‘concentration’ of online gambling activity, i.e. to what extent a small set of highly-engaged gamblers accounts for the majority of gambling activity. This is explored via the Pareto (20:80) rule and Gini coefficients. To link these effects to likely gambling problems, enrolment in Voluntary Self-Exclusion (VSE) is used; VSE programs enable a gambler to bar themselves from online and physical casinos. The dataset is from a Canadian provincial online casino for British Columbia from 2014-2015, consisting of 30,902 gamblers making over half a billion bets. Study 1 quantified the overall concentration effects for the eCasino, based on the number of bets and the net loss. Study 1 also examined Pareto values over time, finding that concentration values accumulated at longer timeframes. In the full year dataset, the 20% most active gamblers accounted for roughly 90% of gambling activity, and this elevated concentration (compared to the traditional 20:80 Pareto rule) was associated with elevated VSE rates among most active gamblers. Study 2 extended these findings by examining concentration metrics among four categories of gambling products. Video poker had the highest concentration values, and online slot machines had the lowest values. Study 2 proposes a novel measure of personal risk, combining product engagement with the concentration estimates. These personal risk scores were found to be higher among VSE gamblers. Study 3 found that gamblers with a VSE record showed higher levels of payment behaviours, including deposits and withdrawals and via more payment channels, compared to non-VSE gamblers. Random Forest models were able to classify VSE status at AUROC = 0.8 using only payment variables, and performance further improved to AUROC = 0.87 when personal risk scores were included. These results support utility of concentration effects as an indicator of product risk, and the utility of payment variables in risk modelling.
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Identification and measurement of habit formation during slot machine gambling (2024)
Contemporary theories implicate habit formation as a psychological factor in the acquisition, maintenance, and relapse of addictions. Little research has examined the construct of ‘habit’ within the context of gambling. Cognitive psychology defines habits as automated responses that transition from voluntary to involuntary control, and once formed, become insensitive to delivery of the associated outcome. This dissertation outlines a program of research designed to examine behavioural measures that may reflect habit formation in the specific context of slot machine gambling. Slot machines are a form of gambling that are closely related to gambling harms, and are well-suited to engender habit formation. I developed a realistic simulation of a modern multi-line slot machine to identify ecologically-valid habits occurring during slot machine gambling. Study 1 assessed inexperienced slot machine gamblers who gambled on the simulation on three separate occasions. Analyses identified two candidate behaviours, spin initiation latency and bet switching, that were influenced by practice both within and between gambling sessions. These markers became more associated with game-related events (win size and loss streak length) as a function of practice. Participants in Study 1 also completed a Pavlovian-to-Instrumental Transfer task as a domain-general measure of habit formation. The two behavioural markers showed some associations with the strength of Pavlovian-to-Instrumental Transfer learning, supporting the validity of the markers as habit indices. Study 2 sought to extend the methods of Study 1 to an online environment, given the lack of research on online slot machine gambling and expansion of online gambling in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. Experienced gamblers were assigned to one of three experimental conditions that tested the influence of the game’s graphical user interface on spin initiation latency and bet switching. Analyses revealed that the latency measure differed significantly between keyboard and mouse-control interfaces, but bet switches and the overall subjective experience during gambling were not influenced by the interface design. Across the sample, problem gambling severity was associated with bet switching but not with spin initiation latencies. These results bear implications for future slot machine gambling research methods, cognitive-behavioural interventions for gambling, and risk-detection algorithms targeting high-risk gambling.
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Chasing in online gambling and its practical application in gambling intervention (2023)
'Chasing' refers to a tendency to increase betting in an effort to recoup prior losses (i.e., 'loss chasing') or to satisfy an increased gambling desire following wins (i.e., 'win chasing'). Chasing characterizes the transition from recreational to problem gambling, but few studies have examined this behaviour systematically. Using online gambling data, I sought a holistic understanding of chasing by capturing between- and within-session chasing behaviour. Further, I evaluated a behavioural intervention to reduce loss chasing. Chapters 2, 3, and 4 examined between- and within-session chasing using naturalistic data from a gambling website (PlayNow.com in British Columbia, Canada). For between-session chasing, average gamblers returned more slowly after a losing session and returned more quickly after a winning session. Within-session chasing depends on game type, chasing measurement (bet amount vs. quit probability), and outcome timeframe (immediate vs. cumulative outcomes). Across most games, loss chasing depended more on timeframe but not measurement, whereas win chasing depended more on measurement. After losing more on the last bet, gamblers staked larger amounts over a longer session, but when cumulative losses mounted, gamblers staked smaller amounts over a shorter session. After winning more, gamblers bet more over a shorter session. Chapter 4 used enrolment in the Voluntary Self-Exclusion (VSE) program as a proxy for likely gambling problems. While conventional assessments of gambling problems focus on between-session loss chasing, it did not differentiate VSE gamblers from Non-VSE gamblers. Instead, these groups differed in their within-session loss chasing tendencies. Therefore, future research aiming to identify high-risk gambling patterns should also consider within-session behavioural markers. Chapter 5 recruited gamblers from the survey platform, Prolific, and examined the effectiveness of a novel ‘cashing out’ procedure in alleviating loss chasing. In non-problem gamblers, the cashing out manipulation significantly lowered the amount wagered, aligned with the realization effect. There was no interaction between the cashing-out condition and the gambling group, although the cashing-out procedure was not statistically significant in the at-risk or problem gambling groups. These findings provide future directions for identifying gambling problems based on behavioural tracking data, and present proof of concept data for a new digital harm reduction tool.
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Gambling-related cognitive distortions : their associations, measurement, and utility to assess gamblification in video games (2023)
Gambling-related cognitive distortions (GRCDs) are central to the cognitive model of gambling, and through these lenses, gamblers may perceive themselves as being able to predict or influence randomly determined outcomes. Chapter 2 explored the associations between schizotypy, GRCDs, and problematic gambling via three cross-sectional samples. Schizotypal personality (schizotypy) is a cluster of traits in the general population, including alterations in belief formation that may underpin delusional thinking. Small-to-moderate associations were detected between components of schizotypy and gambling-related variables, pointing to shared biases relating to belief formation and decision-making. Chapter 3 sought to develop a scale to assess state-activated GRCDs during slot machine gambling. Scale items were developed and refined across three samples and underwent exploratory factor analysis. This produced a 17-item scale comprising 4 factors: Magical Thinking, Personal Illusion of Control, Hot Hand Fallacy, and Experienced Luck. Initial reliability and validity was established. This instrument increases accessibility to state-activated gambling beliefs. Chapters 4 & 5 focused upon the gamblification of video games by investigating ‘loot boxes’, virtual items in video games that generate a randomized in-game reward of varying desirability. Chapter 4 was among the first studies to establish a cross-sectional link between loot boxes and gambling. Loot boxes were perceived as gambling by a majority of participants. Loot box expenditure, and their risky use, was moderately linked to GRCDs and problematic gambling. The gambling-related variables were also a stronger predictor of risky loot box use than a measure of disordered gaming. These results underline a psychological similarity between loot boxes and gambling and implicate each behaviour as a risk factor for the other, although these cross-sectional data do not establish directionality. Chapter 5 clarified the directional relationship between loot boxes and gambling behaviour, via a longitudinal study. In a sample of non-gamblers, ‘migration’ to gambling was predicted by loot box expenditure and risky use six months later, whereas non-loot box microtransaction expenditure did not. In an exploratory resorting of participants, baseline GRCD endorsement also predicted migration to loot box use. These results are consistent with a bi-directional temporal relationship and support regulatory action on loot boxes.
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Behavioural and physiological correlates of immersion in gambling using electronic gaming machines (2020)
More than most gambling forms, Electronic Gaming Machines (EGMs, e.g. modern slot machines) have been linked to Gambling Disorder, a behavioural addiction recognized by the American Psychiatric Association. Immersion is a ‘trance-like’ state of extreme focus often reported in EGM gambling. Immersion in EGM gambling is a robust predictor of gambling problems, but is poorly understood. Few studies have investigated the cognitive, behavioural, and physiological correlates of this subjective state, and existing data rely on retrospective self-report. I investigated these topics, hypothesizing that immersion in EGM gambling produces measurable shifts in behaviour and physiological arousal, and that EGM immersion affects gamblers’ behaviour towards specific elements of the device.The first two experiments recruited samples of undergraduate students, and examined whether self-reported immersion during an EGM gambling session correlated with cardiac markers of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system activity. EGM gambling saw decreased parasympathetic nervous system activity irrespective of immersion. Changes in sympathetic activity were limited to the first few minutes of gambling, and were specifically associated with immersion. Additionally, higher rates of immersion were found when participants placed bets across multiple paylines, a feature endemic to modern EGMs.The third and fourth experiments recruited a sample of experienced EGM gamblers, who gambled on a real EGM while providing high-resolution eye tracking data. Immersion levels were associated with increased time spent looking at the EGM’s credit window, and decreased time on its spinning reels. Immersion was positively associated with the number of saccades participants made while gambling, as well as longer post-reinforcement pauses, a behavioural indicator of perceived reward value. We found that the EGM’s free spin bonus feature was associated with significant increases in pupil diameter, potentially indicating sympathetic nervous system arousal.Together, these experiments suggest that immersion is an active state characterized by increased reward-seeking. These data further link immersion to activity within the sympathetic nervous system, and show that immersion is impacted by specific features of modern EGMs. These results present novel candidate markers of immersion, both behavioural and physiological, and provide insight into the disproportionate rates of gambling problems associated with modern EGMs.
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Master's Student Supervision
Theses completed in 2010 or later are listed below. Please note that there is a 6-12 month delay to add the latest theses.
Concentrated behaviour in online gambling: an exploratory data analysis (2024)
The rise of online gambling has transformed the gambling environment by providing easier access to a wide variety of gambling products. While often marketed as entertainment, a subset of highly-engaged gamblers face significant harms. Research into online gambling has used customer data from gambling websites to track behaviors. Studies have shown that online gambling can be highly ‘concentrated’ among a small number of high-intensity gamblers, who also seem to experience gambling harm. This concentration can be operationalized as a Pareto estimate, i.e. the percentage of gambling activity that can be attributed to the top 20% of consumers. This thesis investigates these concentration effects using a dataset from the eCasino section of PlayNow.com, the provincial gambling website for British Columbia, Canada, spanning seven years from 2013 to 2019. The dataset includes nearly 5 billion bets from over 100,000 customers. The study had four main objectives: 1) to calculate Pareto estimates for different gambling product categories; 2) to analyze the stability of these estimates over time; 3) to examine the relationship between high-intensity gambling and Voluntary Self-Exclusion (VSE), as an indicator of gambling harms; 4) to assess how adding or removing low engagement customers affects Pareto estimates.The findings indicate that, across all products and years, Pareto estimates were 'hyper-Pareto,' with the top 20% of customers generating over 80% (typically around 90%) of revenue and bets. Although estimates varied by product category, they remained relatively stable within each category. Concentration estimates varied by product category, and remained relatively stable; slots were consistently the lowest, and highest for video poker. This ordering was reversed when considering the difference in VSE rates in the ‘vital few’ (top 20%) and ‘trivial many’ (bottom 80%): the top 20% of slots gamblers were 2-3 times more likely to have a VSE record than the bottom 80%, whereas video poker players were 1-1.5 times more likely. These results are interpreted in relation to the hypothesis that high Pareto estimates indicate ‘addictiveness’ of a gambling product, and these data raise some important challenges to this hypothesis.
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Impulse and reason : justifications in problem gambling (2023)
Impulsivity is a core component of problem gambling. This conventionally entails acting without thinking. However, people may use deliberate, intentional justifications to grant themselves permission to gamble. Across 3 studies, I examined the degree to which gambling justifications were associated with problem gambling severity and gambling behaviour. Participants were gamblers who had experience with, or were currently, trying to reduce their gambling. In Studies 1 and 2, participants reported their gambling justifications and completed standard measures of impulsivity, cognitive distortions, and problem gambling severity. I found that justifications were positively associated with problem gambling severity even after controlling for impulsivity and cognitive distortions. These results were replicated in Study 2 with an improved design. In Study 3, I used a daily diary approach to examine fluctuations in justifications, craving, positive and negative affect, and gambling behaviour over a 21-day window. Results showed that justifications were positively, albeit modestly, associated with next-day gambling even after controlling for craving, positive affect, and negative affect. These findings indicate that justifications are a neglected aspect of cognition in gamblers that cannot be explained by impulsivity, cognitive distortions, craving, or affect, and may contribute to self-control failures and thus recovery from problem gambling.
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The near-miss effect in online slot-machine gambling: a series of conceptual replications (2022)
The field of gambling studies is beginning to recognize the need to conduct targeted replications of influential effects throughout the field. Given the limited resources afforded to researchers, we must be systematic in our approach to selecting which effects are most in need of replication. Following a systematic approach to replication selection, a series of conceptual replications of the ‘near-miss effect’ in slot machine gambling was conducted, on online community samples. Near-miss outcomes on a slot machine are those that appear proximal to a win, though they are functionally identical to other losing outcomes (herein termed ‘full misses’). Near-misses have been shown to elicit a range of differential psychological effects compared to full-misses. Experiment 1a and 1b attempted to replicate a previous study by Clark et al. 2009 that 1) near-misses are experienced as more negative, 2) near-misses are rated as more motivating to continue playing a slot machine. Experiment 2 tested the effects on speed of gambling (a replication of Dixon et al. 2013) that near-miss outcomes speed up participant speed of play compared to full miss outcomes. Experiment 3 tested whether near-miss outcomes influence subsequent bet size. I replicated the motivation hypothesis of Clark et el., (2009), but found a significant effect in the opposite direction for the valence hypothesis. Across both study 1a and 1b, near-miss outcomes were more positive relative to full-misses. Experiment 2 replicated the hypothesis that near-miss outcomes increase speed of play (Dixon et al., 2013). Experiment 3 observed near-miss outcomes led to a significant increase in bet size on the subsequent spin relative to full-miss outcomes. I consider how this pattern of results across 3 different dependent variables speak to the different theoretical accounts of how near-misses operate.
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The severity of gambling problem and loss aversion in healthy gamblers: the implications of Prospect Theory in gambling research (2018)
Gambling decisions are inherently risky decisions involving wins and losses. The severity of gambling problems varies with the persistence of betting despite mounting losses. ‘Prospect Theory’, a descriptive model of risky decision-making from the field of behavioural economics, describes an influential phenomenon called Loss Aversion: the natural tendency for “losses to loom larger than gains” when people evaluate risky choices (Kahneman and Tversky, 1992). It is an intuitive prediction that people with the more severe gambling problem will display systematic alterations in their loss aversion. Experiment 1 reviewed two widely-used loss aversion tasks (the ‘matrix’ and ‘staircase’ methods) in the past studies, which also have varied in whether trial-by-trial outcome feedback was presented within each task. Hence, Experiment 1 was a methodological study. It aimed to evaluate whether the presentation of outcome feedback influences loss aversion scores with student samples, as a precursor for Experiment 2 using this procedure in regular gamblers. Experiment 2 recruited non-problem gamblers with varying levels of sub-clinical gambling problems. With the established task, it studied the relationships between the severity of gambling problems and risk preferences including risk attitudes across the gain and loss domains, loss aversion, and probability distortions. In Experiment 1, the outcome feedback did not show significant influence on the level of loss aversion. In Experiment 2, the findings indicated that the risk attitudes in the gain domain were the only Prospect Theory-based variable that correlated with the severity of gambling problems; participants with more severe problems tended to be more risk-seeking in the gain domain, and in the loss domain, all participants displayed ambivalent choices between risk-seeking and risk-averse. Moreover, the level of loss aversion and the magnitudes of probability distortions for potential gains and losses did not correlate with the severity of gambling problems.
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Slot machine gambling and testosterone: evidence for a 'winner-loser' effect? (2017)
Testosterone can be seen to modulate cognition and behaviour in many ways. One likely effect is to promote risky decision-making. According to a phenomenon termed the “winner-loser effect,” testosterone has also been observed to fluctuate in response to winning or losing competitions with others, with wins causing increases and losses causing decreases. Surprisingly, few studies have investigated the effects of gambling on testosterone levels, or whether individual differences in testosterone are related to risky gambling strategies. More specifically, the winner-loser effect may extend to slot machine gambling as a solitary gambling activity if players tend to ‘anthropomorphize’ slot machines, i.e. to treat the machine as a human agent with intentions and feelings. This study used a quasi-experimental design to measure testosterone fluctuations in response to winning and losing during a period of authentic slot machine gambling. Cortisol and anthropomorphism were investigated as potential moderators of a winner-loser effect on testosterone. Male participants (n = 120) provided saliva samples before and after a period of gambling on an authentic slot machine. Participants also provided measures of real-world gambling involvement, subjective experiences during slot machine play, and anthropomorphic tendencies. Contrary to predictions, winning and losing were not significantly associated with divergent effects on testosterone, even after considering cortisol levels and anthropomorphization of the slot machine. An exploratory analysis supported a link between positive affect (higher in winners) and decreases in testosterone, which suggested that the winner-loser effect may be reversed in slot machine gambling. In addition, baseline testosterone predicted a slower rate of gambling. The results of this study add to a growing literature on the boundary conditions of the winner-loser effect, which inform future examinations of the role of testosterone in gambling behaviour.
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